Buddhism

The spread of Buddhism throughout China sparked diverse responses from many individuals. Scholars from varying backgrounds and religions had differing opinions about Buddhism and multiple factors influenced their viewpoint. Factors such as what class they are from, what religion they are, and what events are happening at the time. Documents 2 and 3 are written by Chinese scholars who are in support of Buddhism and seem to be trying to inform others of the positives of Buddhism. The authors of Documents 4 and 6 are Confucian and part of the Tang court, and because of that they are against Buddhism. Documents 1 and 5 come from Buddhists (Document 1 is supposedly the first sermon preached by the Buddha himself) who are in favor of Buddhism. Chinese scholars are intelligent and literate, causing their viewpoint to be held in high regard. Because of this, Chinese scholars may have been able to influence others opinions. This is evident in Document 2, where Chinese scholar Zhi Dun tried to calm the people of the nation down and stick to their religion even when times are hard (Asian Nomads invaded Northern China during his period). Zhi Dun may have been trying to soothe the people by emphasizing on the spiritual side of Buddhism because he didn’t want the peasants to rebel. Similar to Document 2, Document 3 features an anonymous Chinese scholar who was defending Buddhism and trying to convince people to convert. In the form of a Qamp;A session, this Chinese scholar defends Buddhism and provides answers to difficult questions such as why Buddhism was never practiced by the sages of the past and Confucius. Both Documents 2 and 3 has authors that support Buddhism and gone out of their way to promote the religion. Documents 4 and 5, in my opinion, are clearly written by biased authors who are anti-Buddhism. Han You, a leading Confucian scholar and official and the Tang imperial court, mentioned that since Buddha’s sayings contain nothing about the ancient kinds and did not follow Confucian tradition, it is an evil and later generations should be spared from this â€Å"evil†. Tang Emperor Wu in Document 6 basically reiterated on this statement. Both authors believe that the spread of Buddhism is corrupt and that it is damaging to the public. However, both authors are part of the Tang court are also Confucian, so perhaps they are trying to resist Buddhism so that the new religion won’t overpower their authority. By speaking badly of Buddhism, they might convince the public to remain with Confucianism. Documents 1 and 5 are both very interesting. In fact, Document 1 contains the first sermon preached by the Buddha himself. Document 5 is written by a Buddhist scholar who is also favored by the Tang imperial household, which is quite distinctive. These two authors are unique individuals, and both support Buddhism. However, while Zong Mi supports Buddhism, he is also open-minded and respects both Confucius and the Buddha. He refers to them as perfect sages since their teachings lead to the creation of an orderly society. He differs from the rest of scholars in that he is basically neutral and doesn’t side with one religion over another. But even though these two authors are pro-Buddhism, there is a certain â€Å"voice† missing. I think a Buddhist peasant could contribute his opinion. Since he is from a lower class, he has the perspective of the religion from a poor person’s point of view and could have different feelings about it compared to higher class people such as Zong Mi and the Buddha.

Attention Deficit and Hyperactive Disorder Essay

Attention Deficit and Hyperactive Disorder - Essay Example Symptoms include difficulty staying focused and paying attention, difficulty controlling behavior, and hyperactivity (over-activity)† (par. 1). Doctors Phillips and Mersch identifies it as a â€Å"chronic biobehavioral disorder that initially manifests in childhood and is characterized by hyperactivity, impulsivity, and/or inattention† (Phillips and Mersch, 2011, p. 1). Types There were specifically three types of the disorder, to wit: (1) the inattentive type; (2) the hyperactive impulsive type; and (3) a combination of the inattentive and hyperactive impulsive types (Kids Health, 2011). As the terms suggests, the inattentive type exhibits the following signs and symptoms: unable to pay attention or focus on details, manifests apparent listening dilemmas, easily distracted, forgetful, avoids mental tasks. The hyperactive impulsive type, on the other hand, manifests symptoms of being on the go at all times; excessive talking, climbing or running; difficulty waiting, rema ining seated, and playing quietly; tendencies to interrupt; and fidgeting, among others. The third type, the combination of the two, exhibits a combination of the signs and symptoms above mentioned. Causes There are diverse theories that try to explain the root cause of the disorder. According to NIMH (2010), the actual cause could not be determined, but genetics could play a significant role in its manifestations. Other factors that could be attributed to preponderance to the disorder are environmental factors, injuries in the brain, and nutrition or some food elements in the diet, among others. A research conducted by Shaw et al. (2007) revealed that â€Å"children with ADHD who carry a particular version of a certain gene have thinner brain tissue in the areas of the brain associated with attention. This NIMH research showed that the difference was not permanent, however, and as children with this gene grew up, the brain developed to a normal level of thickness. Their ADHD sympt oms also improved† (Shaw et al., 2007, cited by NIMH: Causes, 2010, par. 3). In terms of environmental factors, studies have proven that parents who have been drinking alcohol and smoking have direct links to having children with ADHD (Linnet et al., 2003; Mick et al., 2002). Further, children at preschool levels found to have presumably been exposed to lead of high levels (through paint or plumbing fixtures) exhibited symptoms of the disorder (Braun et al., 2006). In terms of food additives, the research conducted by McCann (2007) aimed to establish a direct link between food with preservatives or artificial colors. Future researches are still required to validate this contention. Statistics The Centers of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported the following relevant statistics on children with ADHD: ? Approximately 9.5% or 5.4 million children 4-17 years of age have ever been diagnosed with ADHD, as of 2007. ? The percentage of children with a parent-reported ADHD dia gnosis increased by 22% between 2003 and 2007. Boys (13.2%) were more likely than girls (5.6%) to have ever been diagnosed with ADHD. (CDC, n.d., 1). The information that boys were more likely to be afflicted with the disorder than girls have been supported in other studies such as the Phillips and Mersch (2011) who indicated â€Å"ADHD occurs two to four times more commonly in boys than girls (male to female ratio 4:1 for the predominantly hyperactive type vs. 2:1 for the predomi

Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 55

Reflection - Essay Example Language is important resource which also serves as critical tool for disseminating information. Effectiveness of teaching and learning is indeed a constant effort which teachers apply by testing new approaches with learners. Thus methods of teaching need to be looked from new perspective of bonding with learners which can address their learning capabilities and make teaching and learning effective. I strongly agree with the writer that ELT has gradually lost its relevance as the basic purpose of ELT has been overridden by the researchers who believe that semantics of the language is more important. Language is important tool of communication and ELT becomes relevant for foreign students in English speaking nations. The fundamental aim of ELT was to ensure that foreign students were better equipped to assimilate within mainstream population and communicate effectively. But now ELT has evolved into important method of teaching to foreign students and become controversial as its theoretical aspects obstruct learners’ ability to communicate in the real world which actually defeats the very purpose of the language! Theories become effective only when their efficacy is tested in real world. Consequently, practice should be the basis of evolving theories. (words:

Laws Of War :: essays research papers

Laws of War The term "laws of war" refers to the rules governing the actual conduct of armed conflict. This idea that there actually exists rules that govern war is a difficult concept to understand. The simple act of war in and of itself seems to be in violation of an almost universal law prohibiting one human being from killing another. But during times of war murder of the enemy is allowed, which leads one to the question, "if murder is permissible then what possible "laws of war" could there be?" The answer to this question can be found in the Charter established at the International Military Tribunals at Nuremberg and Tokyo: Crimes against Humanity: namely, murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population, before or during the war, or persecutions on political, racial or religious grounds in execution of or in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal, whether or not in violation of the domestic law of the country where perpetrated. Leaders, organizers, instigators, and accomplices participating in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy to commit any of the foregoing crimes are responsible for all acts performed by any persons in execution of such plan.1 The above excerpt comes form the Charter of the Tribunal Article 6 section C, which makes it quite clear that in general the "laws of war" are there to protect innocent civilians before and during war. It seems to be a fair idea to have such rules governing armed conflict in order to protect the civilians in the general location of such a conflict. But, when the conflict is over, and if war crimes have been committed, how then are criminals of war brought to justice? The International Military Tribunals held after World War II in Nuremberg on 20 November 1945 and in Tokyo on 3 May 1946 are excellent examples of how such crimes of war are dealt with. (Roberts and Guelff 153-54) But, rather than elaborate on exact details of the Tribunals of Nuremberg and Tokyo a more important matter must be dealt with. What happens when alleged criminals of war are unable to be apprehended and justly tried? Are they forgotten about, or are they sought after such as other criminals are in order to serve justice? What happens if these alleged violators are found residing somewhere other than where their pursuers want to bring them to justice? How does one go about legally obtaining the custody of one such suspect? Some of the answers to these questions can be found in an analysis of

Core Values Essay

Inspired by the charism of Saint Marcellin Champagnat, Notre Dame of Marbel University anchors its faith and life on the following core values as foundational qualities with which the Marist Brothers, Mission Partners, and students approach the entire educational process and academic atmosphere of the University: Family Spirit, Marian, Love of Work, Preference for the Least Favored, Quality Education, Integrity of Creation, and Culture-sensitivity. Family Spirit St. Marcellin Champagnat’s great desire and legacy was in the style of relationship he encouraged between teachers and students- a relationship premised on love and expressed in a style which Marcellin called â€Å"family spirit.† Akin to the characteristic of a good family are: a warmth of welcome, acceptance, belongingness and authentic concern which should prevail where everyone has a sense of being valued and believed in, regardless of their role or their social standing. Marian Mary is for us the perfect model of the Marist Educator, as she was for Marcellin. As a woman, a layperson and Jesus’ first follower, she is our inspiration in living out personal faith and virtue of simplicity. As an educator of Jesus at Nazareth, she inspires our pedagogical approach. The Marian aspect of our spirituality is expressed above all, in our identifying with her attitudes towards others and to God. She is in our midst, a symbol of unity and mission, a witness to God’s solidarity with people in their needs and sufferings. Love of Work Love of work implies a cheerful and careful preparation of all the things one does. It values the dignity of work as a powerful means of self-fulfillment, of giving purpose and meaning to life, and of contributing to the general economics, social and cultural well-being. It is manifested through a deep sense of personal planning and motivation that shows itself in the good use of time, talent and initiative. Preference for the Least Favored Preference for the least favored is to be with those who are excluded from the mainstream of society, and those whose material poverty leads to deprivation in relation to health, family life, schooling, and educational values. With the emergence of social and cultural challenges confronting the world, preference to the least favored means being concerned toward the youth who are affected by the social, political, and cultural problems of the society. Quality Education A Marist school is a center of learning, of life and of evangelizing. It leads students â€Å"to learn, to know, to be competent, to live together and most especially, to grow as persons.† Quality education is characterized as holistic where students are progressively initiated into their life-long challenge of harmonizing faith, culture and life. It provides educational programmes, curriculum contents, and teaching methods that meet the aspirations of students, parents and the community with regard to subject choices, career possibilities and educational needs of the community. It gives emphasis to educating students by teaching them through good examples and inculcating in them the importance of the craft of teaching and its support systems. Integrity of Creation â€Å"Respect for the value of life† and â€Å"care for the mother earth† are two major themes in valuing the integrity of creation. It upholds life-giving values and promotes stewardship of the earth. Culture Sensitivity Culture must be accepted as the gift of every people, the expression of their dignity, liberty and creativity, and the testimony of their unique place in the history of humanity. Culture sensitivity means openness and respect to the different culture of peoples. It promotes dialogue as a way of enhancing unity in diversity. On the individual level, it is a communication between two persons with different views, different values and traditions, to learn from each other in order for them to change and grow. Culture sensitivity as a value promotes respect for the tri-people of Mindanao, develops programs for inter-faith dialogue and upholds advocacy on issues as a result of the emerging culture of the global world.

Movie Life Is Beautiful By Roberto Benigni - 1339 Words

We all are shaped by our experiences in our lives. And the memories, good and bad, have permanently altered our outlook towards our lives and future. We are nothing but a mind over matter that is a product of our experiences under specific circumstances in our lives. If our circumstances were any different, our experiences would have been very different as well and would result in a different memory that will remain with us forever. Perhaps they lie dormant in our minds for long, but only until similar circumstances arise in our lives. I tend to draw some inspiration from the character Guido; Roberto Benigni played in the movie Life is Beautiful where in the second half of the movie he tries to create a totally different experience of a†¦show more content†¦In India, people don’t just travel in railways but they talk about the whole world, eat, pray, play etc. under the same Sun. I was travelling from Vadodara to Ankleshwar by Gujarat Express train in a general coach during my undergraduate studies. Let me describe here a little bit about the general coach of the trains of Indian railways. You are lucky if you can take a proper breath. You are luckier if you can keep your both legs on the surface. You are world’s luckiest person if you can manage to sit anywhere (means anywhere) somehow. I was standing near to the passage. I saw a family standing next to me. The family consisted of total three members the mother, the father and their son. Their looks and dressings mentioned that they belonged to a rich or upper middle class category of families. The father was asking his son whether he liked travelling in the general coach of the train or not. And the son replied with a big â€Å"No†. The story was like this. The family had travelled by flight just a day before their train journey. The son had tasted the essence of flying before having the harsh experience of train journey. Now, his father pointed towards the passengers of the train and gave a valuable lesson to his son that, only study and proper education could give him the comfort of air travel otherwise he would end up with the hardships of the trains just like the experience which they and theShow MoreRelatedLife Is Beautiful Essay713 Words   |  3 PagesIn the movie Life Is Beautiful, a Jewish man and his family are put into a concentration camp during the Holocaust. The movie gives an inside look at the horrors the Jews were faced with during the Holocaust. Life Is Beautiful should be incorporated into a unit on the Holocaust in schools because it shows everything the Jews were faced with, it handles expressing the horrors of the Holocaust without being too graphic, and it would help students get a more personal feeling of what happened toRead MoreRoberto Benigni’s Life is Beautiful Essay712 Words   |  3 PagesThe Film Life is Beautiful In the movie Life Is Beautiful, a Jewish man and his family are put into a concentration camp during the Holocaust. The movie gives an inside look at the horrors the Jews were faced with during the Holocaust. ?Life Is Beautiful? should be incorporated into a unit on the Holocaust in schools because it shows everything the Jews were faced with, it handles expressing the horrors of the Holocaust without being too graphic, and it would help students get a more personalRead MoreEssay about The Things that Money Can and Cannot Buy1589 Words   |  7 PagesMoney, the media of exchange for products and services, provides things people need, like food, clothing, shelter, or medicine. People spend most of their life looking for it. My parent for example, works from sunrise to sunset to obtain it. The more money people have the more benefits they can get, because they will be able to get a bigger and better houses, clothes, or food. Less money means stress in bill payments, gas prices, and f ood prices. 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In both the book and the movie, Anne and Guido demonstrateRead MorePortrayal of the Holocaust in Maus Written by Spiegelman and Life is Beautiful Directed by Roberto Benigni768 Words   |  4 PagesBoth Maus, written by Art Spiegelman, and Life is beautiful , directed by Roberto Benigni have two very different portrayals of the holocaust and their main characters both have different strengths that allow them and their families to keep afloat during the Holocaust. Vladek and Guido use their individual strengths to survive the prison camps and help their loved ones to survive as well. Both Vladek and Guido have families they need to keep track of while living in the harsh environment of the concentrationRead More The War Experience in Italian Film Essay3455 Words   |  14 Pagesof the aforementioned corpus. The war experience in Italian film can be succinctly considered through a detailed analysis of Rome, Open City (Roma, Città   Aperta, Roberto Rossellini, 1945), Salo: 120 Days of Sodom (Salà ² o le 120 Giornate di Sodoma, Pier Paolo Pasolini, 1975), and Life is Beautiful (La Vita à ¨ Bella, Roberto Benigni, 1997). Though all three films take place during roughly the same diegetic time period, they are each separated in production and release date by up to 30 years. Read MoreLiterary And Cinematic Works Of `` Maus ``1856 Words   |  8 PagesIn the decades following the end of World War II there have been many literary and cinematic works portraying what life was like during the Holocaust. Many of these have come from survivors themselves but never the less even some of the most well-known works have come from second generation Holocaust victims or rather children whose parents were a part of it. One of the most renowned pieces is Art Spiegelman’s non-fiction graphic novel â€Å"Maus†. Originally published in 1980, it details the experiences

The Problem With Feudalism

Medieval historians generally arent bothered by words. The intrepid medievalist is always ready to leap into the rough-and-tumble milieu of Old English word origins, medieval French literature, and Latin Church documents. Icelandic sagas hold no terror for the medieval scholar. Next to these challenges, the esoteric terminology of medieval studies is mundane, no threat to the historian of the Middle Ages. But one word has become the bane of medievalists everywhere. Use it in discussing medieval life and society, and the average medieval historians face will screw up in revulsion. What word has this power to annoy, disgust, and even upset the ordinarily cool, collected medievalist? Feudalism. What Is Feudalism? Every student of the Middle Ages is at least somewhat familiar with the term, usually defined as follows: Feudalism was the dominant form of political organization in medieval Europe. It was a hierarchical system of social relationships wherein a noble lord granted land known as a fief to a free man, who in turn swore fealty to the lord as his vassal and agreed to provide military and other services. A vassal could also be a lord, granting portions of the land he held to other free vassals; this was known as subinfeudation and often led all the way up to the king. The land granted to each vassal was inhabited by serfs who worked the land for him, providing him with income to support his military endeavors; in turn, the vassal would protect the serfs from attack and invasion. This is a simplified definition, and many exceptions and caveats go along with this model of medieval society. It is fair to say that this is the explanation for feudalism youll find in most history textbooks of the 20th century, and it is very close to every dictionary definition available. The problem? Virtually none of it is accurate. Description Inaccurate Feudalism  was  not the dominant form of political organization in medieval Europe. There was no hierarchical system of lords and vassals engaged in a structured agreement to provide military defense. There was no subinfeudation leading up to the king. The arrangement whereby serfs worked the land for a lord in return for protection, known as manorialism or seignorialism, was not part of a feudal system. Monarchies of the early Middle Ages had their challenges and their weaknesses, but kings didnt use feudalism to exert control over their subjects, and the feudal relationship wasnt the glue that held medieval society together, as had been said. In short, feudalism as described above never existed in Medieval Europe. For decades, even centuries, feudalism has characterized our view of medieval society. If it never existed, then why did so many historians say it did? Werent entire books written on the subject? Who has the authority to say that all those historians were wrong? If the current consensus among experts in medieval history is to reject feudalism, why is it still presented as reality in nearly every medieval history textbook? Concept Questioned The word feudalism was never used during the Middle Ages. The term was invented by 16th- and 17th-century scholars to describe a political system of several hundred years earlier. This makes feudalism a post-medieval construct. Constructs help us understand alien ideas in terms more familiar to our modern thought processes. Middle Ages and medieval are constructs. (Medieval people didnt think of themselves as living in a middle age—they thought they were living in the now, just like we do.) Medievalists might not like the way the term medieval is used as an insult or how absurd myths of past customs and behavior are commonly attributed to the Middle Ages, but most are confident that using Middle Ages and medieval to describe the era as between the ancient and early modern eras is satisfactory, however fluid the definition of all three timeframes might be. But medieval has a fairly clear meaning based on a specific, easily defined viewpoint. Feudalism cannot be said to have the same. In 16th-century France,  Humanist  scholars grappled with the history of Roman law and its authority in their own land. They examined a substantial collection of Roman law books. Among these books was the  Libri Feudorum—the Book of Fiefs. Libri Feudorum The  Libri Feudorum  was a compilation of legal texts concerning the proper disposition of fiefs, which were defined in these documents as lands held by people referred to as vassals. The work had been put together in Lombardy, northern Italy, in the 1100s, and over the intervening centuries, lawyers and scholars had commented on it and added definitions and interpretations, or  glosses.  The  Libri Feudorum  is an extraordinarily significant work that has been barely studied since 16th-century French lawyers gave it a good look. In their evaluation of the Book of Fiefs, the scholars made some reasonable assumptions: The fiefs under discussion in the texts were pretty much the same as the fiefs of 16th-century France—that is, lands belonging to nobles.Te  Libri Feudorum  was addressing actual legal practices of the 11th century, not simply expounding on an academic concept.The explanation of fiefs origins in the  Libri Feudorum—that grants were initially made for as long as the  lord  chose but were later extended to the grantees lifetime and afterward made hereditary—was a reliable history and not mere conjecture. The assumptions might have been reasonable, but were they correct? French scholars had every reason to believe they were and no real reason to dig any deeper. They werent so much interested in the historical  facts of the time period as they were in the legal questions addressed in the  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Libri Feudorum.  Their foremost consideration was whether the laws had any authority in France. Ultimately, French lawyers rejected the authority of the Lombard Book of Fiefs. Examining Assumptions However, during their investigations, based in part on the assumptions outlined above, scholars who studied the  Libri Feudorum  formulated a view of the Middle Ages. This general picture included the idea that feudal relationships, wherein noblemen granted fiefs to free vassals in return for services, were important in medieval society because they provided social and military security at a time when  the central  government was weak or nonexistent. The idea was discussed in editions of the  Libri Feudorum  made by legal scholars Jacques Cujas and Franà §ois Hotman, who both used the term  feudum  to indicate an arrangement involving a  fief. Other scholars soon saw value in the works of Cujas and Hotman and applied the ideas to their own studies. Before the 16th century ended, two Scottish lawyers—Thomas Craig and Thomas Smith—were using feudum in their classifications of Scottish  lands and their tenure. Craig apparently first expressed the idea of feudal arrangements as a hierarchical  system imposed on nobles and their subordinates by their monarch as a matter of policy.  In the 17th century,  Henry Spelman, a noted English antiquarian, adopted this viewpoint for English legal history. Although Spelman never used the word feudalism, his work went a long way toward creating an -ism from the ideas over which Cujas and Hotman had theorized. Not only did Spelman maintain, as Craig had done, that feudal arrangements were part of a system, but he related the English feudal heritage with that of Europe, indicating that feudal arrangements were characteristic of medieval society as a whole. Spelmans hypothesis was accepted as fact by scholars who saw it as a sensible explanation of medieval social and property relations. Fundamentals Unchallenged Over the next several decades, scholars explored and debated feudal ideas. They expanded the meaning of the term from legal matters to other aspects of medieval society. They argued over the origins of feudal arrangements and expounded on the various levels of  subinfeudation. They incorporated manorialism and applied it to the agricultural economy. They envisioned a complete system of feudal agreements running throughout Britain and Europe. But they didnt challenge Craigs or Spelmans interpretation of the works of Cujas and Hotman, nor did they question the conclusions that Cujas and Hotman drew from the  Libri Feudorum. From the vantage point of the 21st century, its easy to ask why the facts were overlooked in favor of the theory. Present-day historians  engage in  a rigorous  examination of the evidence and clearly identify a theory as such. Why didnt 16th- and 17th-century scholars do the same? The simple answer is that history as a scholarly field has evolved over time; in the 17th century, the academic discipline of  historical  evaluation was in its infancy. Historians didnt have the tools, both physical and figurative, taken for granted today, nor did they have the example of scientific methods from other fields to incorporate into their learning processes. Besides, having a straightforward model by which to view the Middle Ages gave scholars the sense that they understood the time period. Medieval society becomes so much easier to evaluate and comprehend if it can be labeled and fit into a simple organizational structure. By the end of the 18th century, the term feudal system was used among historians, and by the middle of the 19th century, feudalism had become a fairly well-fleshed-out model, or construct, of medieval government and society. As the idea spread beyond academia, feudalism became a buzzword for any oppressive, backward, hidebound system of government. In the  French Revolution, the feudal regime was abolished by the  National Assembly, and in Karl Marxs  Communist Manifesto,  feudalism was the oppressive, agrarian-based economic system that preceded the industrialized, capitalist economy. With such far-ranging appearances in academic and mainstream usage, breaking free of what was, essentially, a wrong impression would be an extraordinary challenge. Questions Arise In the late 19th century, the field of medieval studies began to evolve into a serious discipline. No longer did the average historian accept as fact everything that had been written by his or her predecessors and repeat it as a matter of course. Scholars of the medieval era began to question interpretations of the evidence and the evidence itself. This wasnt a swift process. The medieval era was still the bastard child of historical study; a dark age of ignorance, superstition, and  brutality, a thousand years without a bath.  Medieval historians had much prejudice, fanciful invention, and misinformation to overcome, and there was no concerted effort to shake things up and re-examine every theory ever floated about the Middle Ages. Feudalism had become so entrenched that it wasnt an obvious choice to overturn. Even once historians began to recognize the system as a post-medieval construct, its validity wasnt questioned. As early as 1887,  F.W. Maitland  observed in a lecture on English constitutional history that we do not hear of a feudal system until feudalism ceased to exist.  He examined in detail what feudalism supposedly was and discussed how it could be applied to English medieval law, but he didnt question its existence. Maitland was a well-respected scholar; much of his work is still enlightening and useful today. If such an esteemed historian treated feudalism as a legitimate system of law and government, why should anyone question him? For a long time, nobody did. Most medievalists continued in Maitlands vein, acknowledging that the word was a construct—an imperfect one, at that—yet going forward with articles, lectures, treatises, and books on what feudalism had been or, at the very least, incorporating it into related topics as an accepted fact of the medieval era. Each historian presented his or her own interpretation of the model; even those claiming to adhere to a previous interpretation deviated from it in some significant way. The result was an unfortunate number of varying, sometimes conflicting, definitions of feudalism. As the 20th century progressed, the discipline of history grew more rigorous. Scholars uncovered new evidence, examined it closely, and used it to modify or explain their view of feudalism. Their methods were sound, but their premise was problematic: They were trying to  adapt  a deeply flawed theory to a wide variety of facts. Construct Denounced Although several historians  expressed concerns over the indefinite nature of the model and the terms imprecise meanings, it wasnt until 1974 that anyone thought to point out the most fundamental problems with feudalism. In a groundbreaking article titled The Tyranny of a Construct: Feudalism and Historians of Medieval Europe,  Elizabeth A.R. Brown  leveled a finger at the academic community, denouncing the term feudalism and its continued use. Brown maintained that the feudalism construct, developed  after  the Middle Ages, bore little resemblance to actual medieval society. Its many differing, even contradictory, definitions had so muddied the waters that it had lost any useful meaning and was interfering with the proper examination of evidence concerning medieval law and society. Scholars viewed land agreements and social relationships through the warped lens of the feudalism construct and either disregarded or dismissed anything that didnt fit into their version of the model. Brown asserted  that, even  considering how difficult it is to unlearn something, continuing to include feudalism in introductory texts would do readers a grave injustice. Browns article was well received in academic circles. Virtually no American or British medievalists objected to any part of it, and almost everyone agreed: Feudalism wasnt a useful term and really should go. Yet, it stuck around. Hasnt Disappeared Some new publications in medieval studies avoided the term altogether; others used it sparingly,  focusing on actual laws, land tenures, and legal agreements instead of on the model. Some books on medieval society refrained from characterizing that society as feudal. Others, while acknowledging that the term was in dispute, continued to use it as a useful shorthand for lack of a better term, but only as far as it was necessary. But some authors still included descriptions of feudalism as a valid model of medieval society, with little or no caveat. Not  every  medievalist had read Browns  article  or had a chance to consider its implications or discuss it with colleagues. Additionally, revising work conducted on the premise that feudalism was a valid construct would require the kind of reassessment that few historians were prepared to engage in. Perhaps most significantly, no one had presented a reasonable model or explanation to use in place of feudalism. Some historians and authors felt they had to provide their readers with a handle by which to grasp the general ideas of medieval government and society. If not feudalism, then what? Yes, the emperor had no clothes, but for now, he would just have to run around naked.